400 BC

The Quraysh—an Arabic tribe descended from Abraham—gained control of the Ka’bah in Mecca. As guardians of the Holy House, the great center of pilgrimage for all Arabia, along with the nearby Well of Zamzam, the Quraysh ranked higher in dignity than any other Arab tribe. Eventually they also established the great caravan journeys from Mecca to the Yemen and to northwest Arabia, and beyond it to Palestine and Syria, which was then under Byzantine rule as part of the Roman Empire. Both journeys lay along the ancient incense route; and one of the first main halts of the summer caravans was the oasis of Yathrib, eleven camel days north of Mecca. This oasis had at one time been chiefly inhabited by Jews, but an Arab tribe from South Arabia was now in control of it. The Jews none the less continued to live there in considerable prosperity, taking part in the general life of the community while maintaining their own religion.

570

‘Abd al-Mutalib, became the acknowledged leader of the Quraysh; ‘Abd Allah, one of his sons, married Aminah the previous year and in 570 went to Syria and Palestine with a trading caravan. He fell ill at Yathrib and soon died. Muhammad was born a few months later to Aminah. The mother and son were left essentially destitute.

576

Muhammad’s mother died when he was six; orphaned, he was taken into the household of his grandfather ‘Abd al-Mutalib.

578

‘Abd al-Mutalib died and the orphan Muhammad was then taken in by his uncle Abu Talib. Unfortunately, the uncle was not wealthy and young Muhammad helped out by occasionally traveling with the merchant caravans. On one of these early trading trips to Syria, the caravan stopped at Bostra, just northeast of Jerusalem, where a Bahira, a Christian monk, recognized in the young boy a special calling and said to his uncle Abu Talib: "Great things are in store for this brother’s son of thine."

590

By 20, Muhammad began to earn a livelihood supervising trading caravans.

594

Khadijah (1), a woman of Mecca who had married and been widowed twice, had become one of the richer merchants of Mecca, and since the death of her second husband, she hired men to trade on her behalf. Hearing of the trustworthy young 25-year-old Muhammad, she asked him to take some of her merchandise to Syria for a fee double the highest she had ever paid before. When the expedition proved very profitable for her, she was impressed enough that, although 15 years older than he, she soon offered to marry him—an offer which Muhammad gladly accepted.

On that initial trading trip for Khadijah, Muhammad stopped to rest at Bostra where he had stopped 15 years before. The Christian monk Nestor had replaced the deceased Bahira, and when he saw Muhammad, he said, "None other than a prophet is sitting beneath that tree." According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad is the mysterious Shiloh, the inheritor of spiritual authority in "the latter days." See Genesis 49.1,10.

c 605-10

Beginning of Call—The Quraysh decided to rebuild the Ka’bah, and as the project was nearing completion, the clans began arguing as to who would have the privilege of setting in place the Black Stone. A wise old man proposed that the next man to enter the mosque (Arabic masjid, place of prostration) would have the right. Muhammad, just returning from a trip, was that person. Muhammad took this as a clear outward sign to corroborate inner signs that he had been experiencing—"true visions" in his sleep "like the breaking of the light of dawn." He began to go for spiritual retreats to a cave in Mount Hira not far from the outskirts of Mecca.

In his 40th year (610), while alone in the cave, an Angel in the form of a man appeared to him, enfolded him completely in an embrace, and then told him to recite. This was the first revelation (K. 96.1-5). Later a second revelation (K. 93.1-4) impressed upon him these recitations were to be written down in a book. These glorious recitations (qu’ran) came from the celestial archetype revealed by Allah and written by angels; now he was to see that they were written "on an inviolable tablet" (K. 85.21-22). Over the next several years more revelations were made and Muhammad began to convert family members and close friends to his new religion.

610-13

Muhammad’s following quickly grew and soon conflicts erupted with the leaders of the Quraysh (the most notable was Abu Sufyan and his wife Hind). Many of the new converts were their slaves or young people who were family members but not socially/economically established. Also when the Muslims performed their ritual prayers at the Ka’bah, the non-Islamic worshipers considered the act disruptive. Even Muhammad’s own clan became divided over this new movement. When Muhammad saw that most of the Meccans were rejecting his movement, he wished for a revelation that would make Islam more attractive to them. According to Muslim tradition, this was the occasion for the revelation of the Star Sura with its controversial "Satanic Verses" (K. 53 with the alternate reading following verses 19-20).

Whether because of a brouhaha in response to the purging of the verses and substitution of more critical ones (as medieval Muslim lore reports) or because of simply increasing hostility between the Quraysh leaders of Mecca and Muhammad’s group of faithful (as most contemporary orthodox Muslims would have it), the Quraysh began to increase their persecution of the Muslims and instituted a social and economic boycott against anyone protecting them. Although being a wealthy merchant meant Muhammad himself was in no immediate danger, many of his followers were suffering and he finally sent several across the Red Sea to Christian Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for refuge.

619

Muhammad and Khadijah had lived together harmoniously for twenty-five years, but in 619 Khadijah died. She was about sixty-five years old and he was nearing fifty. Khadijah had been Muhammad’s first and—until her death—only wife. By her he had four surviving daughters, but his two sons died in infancy. Khadijah had given Muhammad a slave boy—Zayd—whom Muhammad freed and proclaimed him to be his son and heir. After her death, Khawlah, the wife of 'Uthman ibn Maz'un, had been very attentive to the various needs of the Prophet's household; one day when she was in his house she suggested to him that he should take another wife. When he asked her whom he should marry, she said: "Either 'A'ishah the daughter of Abu Bakr or Sawdah the daughter of Zam'ah. Sawdah, the cousin and sister-in-law of Suhayl. The Prophet told Khawlah to seek to arrange his marriages to both the brides she had suggested.

During this time the situation in Mecca grew more tense for the Muslims, to the point that Muhammad himself was beginning to be insulted as he walked down the street. He decided to approach the Thaqif of Ta’if (the keepers of the shrine to al-Lat) to form an alliance against the Quraysh of Mecca. Rebuffed by them, he returned to Mecca (some suggest this was the occasion for the Star Sura incident).

620

The "Night Journey" from Mecca to Jerusalem, and thence to the Seventh Heaven: One night while he was sleeping Gabriel appeared to him, mounted him on a beast with wings (a cross between a mule and an ass), and carried him swiftly to Jerusalem, where they were met by a group of prophets (Abraham, Moses, Jesus, et al). From there he was carried up to the heavens, where he saw the likes of Joseph and Aaron, and then he was allowed to see "with the eye of the Spirit" and came to know that he "was a prophet when Adam was yet between water and clay." At the summit of the heavens was the Lote Tree--the uttermost end of knowledge, beyond which was only the mystery known only to God. There Gabriel again appeared to him and Muhammad received the commands for his people and the Creed of Islam (K. 2.285). When he returned to Mecca, he immediately went to the mosque and told everyone hesaw of the miraculous night journey; his enemies were pleased to have another reason to mock him.

620

For several years during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad would visit the travelers camped just outside the city to talk to them about Islam. Six men had come from Yathrib (Medina); tensions were high there between the Jews and the pagan Arabs. The six recognized Muhammad as a prophet, accepted Islam, and vowed to return to their city to preach the new religion in hopes of unifying their community. This first pledge of the men from Yathrib later became known as the "Women’s pledge of Aqabah" because it made no commitment to war.

620

Sawdah (2) was a widow, aged about thirty. Her first husband had taken her with him to Abyssinia, and they had been among the first to return to Mecca. Not long after their return Sakran died. When Khawlah proposed the marriage to Muhammad, Sawdah agreed and the marriage was arranged.

620

'A'ishah (3) Following Khadijah's death, Muhammad continued to visit Abu Bakr regularly at his house--visits vividly remembered by ‘A'ishah, Abu Bakr's younger daughter. She could not remember a time when her father and mother were not Muslims, and when Prophet was not a daily visitor to them. During this time, Muhammad dreamed that he saw a man who was carrying someone wrapped in apiece of silk. The man said to him: "This is thy wife, so uncover her." The Prophet lifted the silk and there was 'A'ishah. But 'A'ishah was only six years old, and he had passed his fiftieth year. Moreover Abu Bakr had promised her to another man. The Prophet simply said to himself: "if this be from God, He will bring it to pass." A few nights later he saw in his sleep an Angel carrying the same bundle of silk, and this time it was he who said to the Angel: "Show me." The Angel lifted the silk and there, again, was 'A'ishah, and again the Prophet said: "If this be from God, He will bring it to pass. He did not mention these dreams to anyone, not even to Abu Bakr.

It was after these dreams had occurred that Khawlah urged him to remarry in 620. Once Khawlah sought to arrange the marriage, Abu Bakr negotiated a release from ‘Aishah’s previous betrothal, and, some months after the marriage of Sawdah, 'A'ishah was betrothed to the Prophet through a marriage contracted by him and her father, at which she herself was not present. She said afterwards that she had had her first inkling of her new status when one day she was playing with her friends outside, not far from their house, and her mother came and took her by the hand and led her indoors, telling her that henceforth she must not go out to play, and that her friends must come to her instead. 'A'ishah dimly guessed the reason, though her mother did not immediately tell her that she was betrothed; and apart from having to play in their courtyard instead of in the road, her life continued as before.

621

"The Pledge of Aqabah": During the annual pilgrimage, 12 men from Yathrib returned to the same site where they had met Muhammad the year before and pledged themselves to Muhammad—including "to war against all men." He sent one of his companions back with them to recite the Koran and to prepare the community. In the following months he encouraged many of the Muslims in Mecca to emigrate to Yathrib, about two hundred miles away.

622

The Hegira—Muhammad remained in Mecca for a while, but finally was forced to emigrate himself after barely escaping an assassination plot against him. Their flight, known as the Hegira, or "emigration," is one of the most important events in Muslim history and is commemorated by yearly pilgrimages. The date of the Hegira became year one of the Muslim calendar.

623

Seven months after the migration to Medina, Muhammad’s new residence was completed, which included quarters for his wife Sawdah and for his bethrothed, 'A'ishah. The prophet and his daughters moved in with Sawdah; and after a month or two it was decided that `A'ishah's wedding should take place. She was then only nine years old, a child of remarkable beauty.

To `A'ishah the Prophet had long been very near and very dear, and she had been accustomed to see him every day. From her earliest years she had seen her father and mother treat him with such love and reverence as they gave to no one else. Nor had they failed to impress upon her the reasons for this: she knew well that he was the Messenger of God, that he had regular converse with the Angel Gabriel, and that he was unique amongst living men in that he had ascended to Heaven and returned from thence to earth.

Following the formal ceremony in the bride’s apartment, the bridegroom and bride were left together.

623

Muhammad gained converts and won respect as a judge, rendering decisions on such matters as family relations, property inheritance, and criminal behavior. Preaching a holy war against unbelievers, Muhammad urged followers to raid the trading caravans from Mecca and to subdue unfriendly Bedouin tribes (K. 22.39-40). He sent one group out during one of the holy months (when fighting is forbidden) to gather information about the movements of Meccan caravans; this group found a small caravan and attacked it, bringing the spoils back to Mecca. The Meccans were outraged by the Muslims’ sacrilege, but Muhammad soon received the revelation that resisting Islam and driving God’s people out of their homes was a graver sacrilege and warranted retribution (K. 2.217).

March 17, 624

Battle of Badr: Abu Sufyan was returning from Syria with a rich caravan. Muhammad set out with an army of 305 men to raid it. The Meccans received word of this and quickly mustered an army of about 1,000 to intercept Muhammad’s force. On the morning of the battle, the two sides faced each other. The fighting began with a series of individual challenges. The Muslim Hamzah slew Utbah and then gave Shaybah (the father and uncle of Hind). In the tense moments following the sight of legs, arms and heads being lopped off in single combat as the rest watched on the side, both armies seemed hesitant to engage fully. At this point Muhammad promised his men that any martyr to the cause who died in combat would immediately enter paradise. Promising that the Angels would join them, the Muslims charged the Meccans. The battle didn’t last long, as the Meccans soon retreated. The Muslims lost 14; the Meccans, 50. Several captives were taken by some of the Muslims and brought back to camp, much to the displeasure of other Muslims, who wanted to show no mercy. Sura 8 contains the revelations during and right after the battle, and one verse suggests God’s preference was not to take captives, but once done, they should not be slaughtered—except two of the Quraysh chiefs who were captured were beheaded. The rest of the captives were later ransomed to their families.

The Quraysh were humiliated and vowed vengeance on the Muslims; Hind vowed she would eat raw the liver of Hamzah.

Expulsion of the Bani Qaynuqa (Medinian Jews): Tension grew in Medina because the city’s Jews (Bani Qaynuqa) would not accept him as a prophet and mocked his unfamiliarity with the Hebrew Scriptures and the learned writings of the rabbis. Revelations began to warn against the Jews (K. 3.118-20). Following Badr, Muhammad warned them but they ignored him. Muhammad then expelled several thousand Jews from Medina and seized their property.

625

Hafsah (4) was the daughter of Umar and had married Khunays, one of emigrants to Abyssinia, when he returned to Mecca. Upon the death of Khunays in 625, Umar sought to find another suitable husband for her. Hafsah was only eighteen years old when she became widow, and she was both beautiful and accomplished, having learned to read and write. First Umar approached 'Uthman who had lost his wife the previous year, but after a few days of pondering the offer, 'Uthman mysteriously declined. Umar then offered the girl to his best friend Abu Bakr, who was extremely evasive in response. A few days later Muhammad suggested that Umar allow him to take the girl as wife, thus explaining the reluctance of the other two men.

He married her when the legally necessary four months had elapsed since the death of Khunays. The arrival of Hafsah did not mar the harmony of the household. `A'ishah was pleased to have a companion nearer to her own age, and a lasting friendship was soon developed between the two younger wives, while Sawdah, who had been something of a mother to `A'ishah, now extended a share of her maternal benevolence to the newcomer, who was nearly twenty years younger than she.

After the Battle of Badr, the tribes along the coastal roads were allied with the Muslims, depriving the Meccan merchants of the Red Sea route to Syria. So the Quraysh of Mecca encouraged the Arab tribes east of Medina to harass the Muslims to protect the eastern route. Muhammad decided to strike at some of these tribes. They pledged allegiance to the Muslims.

Following the Battle of Nadr, the Jewish poet Ka’b ibn al-Ashraf wrote verses urging the Meccans to take vengeance on the Muslims, as well as some satirizing Muhammad and his companions. He had recently returned to his home among the Bani Nadr whose community was not far from the outskirts of Medina. Muhammad was heard to pray aloud, "O Lord, deliver me from the son of al-Ashraf, however you will." But Ka’b was safe behind protective walls. Muhammad’s men knew the Prophet hated lying, so he told some of them that deceit was fair in war. They subsequently lured Ka’b outside his protective walls under false pretenses and killed him.

March 23, 625

Battle of Uhud: When the Quraysh set out for Medina with 3,000 men, Muhammad’s uncle sent a letter warning him. Abu Sufyan led the Meccans and was accompanied by his wife Hind. After preaching a sermon on Holy War, Muhammad led 700 Muslims out to meet them. Abu Sufyan challenged Muhammad to single combat only to be met with jeers from the Muslims. Then the battle began in earnest. The momentum went first to the Muslims and then back to the Meccans. At one point a horsemen broke through the ranks and rode up to Muhammad in the back. He delivered a glancing blow to Muhammad’s helmet before he was killed. Other Meccans who saw this thought the Prophet had been killed, and the rumor swept through the ranks. The Muslims fled the field. Only 22 Meccans had been killed to the 65 Muslims. Hind made good on her oath to eat raw the liver of Hamzah, who had been slain in the battle. Abu Sufyan assumed a great victory, including the death of Muhammad, but as he was preparing to leave, a Muslim messenger informed that Muhammad was still alive, at which news Sufyan vowed to meet Muhammad the following year at Badr to complete the conflict. Sura 3 contains many of the revelations received during and after the Battle of Uhud, including those suggesting that Islam would triumph and prosper well after Muhammad’s death.

625

Muhammad continued to subdue neighboring Arab nomadic tribes by sending men into the Najd (the desert region just east of Medina). With little bloodshed the Bani Asad, Bani Amir, and Bani Sulaym, leaving the powerful Bani Ghatafan as the only hostile tribe in the area.

625

Zaynab bint Khuzaymah (5), the daughter of Khuzaymah of the Bedouin tribe of 'Amir, had earlier married 'Ubaydah, and when he died after his single combat with 'Utbah at the beginning of the battle of Badr, she was left a widow. She was very much younger than 'Ubaydah and of a very generous nature--already before the days of Islam she had been known as "the mother of the poor." A year after being widowed she was still unmarried, and when the Prophet asked her to marry him, she gladly accepted. A fourth apartment was made for her in his house adjoining the Mosque. Less than eight months later in 626, Zaynab fell ill and died.

626

Because of the actions against nearby nomadic tribes and the affair of the poet Ka’b, the Jewish Bani Nadir whose settlement was on the outskirts of Medina sought a new pact with Muhammad. He came to the settlement to meet with the leaders and ratify the treaty; as the Muslims were awaiting the preparation of a celebratory feast, Gabriel appeared to Muhammad and told him that the Jews intended to kill him. So he rose and left without a word. His companions waited for awhile, expecting him to return, but when he didn’t, they returned to Medina where they found him. Muhammad then sent word to the Jews to leave their settlement within 10 days; after that, any found would have his head cut off.

Their leader encouraged them to stay, but when Muhammad rode out in force to their settlement, they surrended without a fight and left with all they could quickly load on their camels. Many of them resettled in the Jewish city of Khaybar, while others relocated to Jericho and southern Syria. In accordance to God’s revelation—Sura 59, "Exile"--Muhammad assumed all the property left by the Jews.

626

Umm Salamah (6)--a month after his wife Zaynab's death, Muhammad's cousin Abu Salamah died of a wound from Uhud. Four months after his death the Prophet came and asked Umm Salamah for her hand in marriage. She replied that she feared she was not a suitable match for him. "I am a woman whose best time hath gone," she said, "and I am the mother of orphans. What is more, I have a nature of exceeding jealousy, and thou, O Messenger of God, hast already more than one wife." He answered: "As to age, I am older than thou; as to thy jealousy, I will pray God to take it from thee; as to thine orphan children, God and His Messenger will care for them." And so they were married, and he lodged her in the house which had belonged to Zaynab.

Despite what she had said of her age, Umm Salamah was still in her youth, no more than twenty-nine years old. She had been only eighteen when she had emigrated to Abyssinia with Abu Salamah. As regards her jealousy, she rightly feared that this marriage would put her to the test, nor was she alone in having such fears. 'A'ishah had accepted Hafsah without difficulty, and also Zaynab; but with this new wife it was different: everyone in Medina was talking of the Prophet's new marriage and of the great beauty of his bride, she was troubled and apprehensive.

April 626

"Next year at Badr!": In response to Abu Sufyan’s challenge the previous year at the end of the Battle of Uhud, 1500 Muslims appeared at Badr. This was the time of an annual trading fair at the city, so the Muslims did some good business and returned to Medina. The Meccans brought 2000 men to within sight of Badr but did not enter the fair itself. They too returned to their city.

December 626

Juwairiyah (7)—Muhammad set out on an expedition along the shore of the Red Sea to scattered a tribe which was apparently mobilizing for an attack on Medina. Taken by surprise at the well of Muraysi, the army was swiftly put to flight. The Muslims lost one man killed, their enemies ten. But they took two thousand of their camels, five thousand head of sheep and goats and also two hundred women. One of these, Juwayriyya, was the daughter of their chief and very beautiful. No one could set eyes on her without loving her. In the division of the spoils, she fell to the lot of Thabit ibn Qays. She haggled with him about her ransom and demanded to be set free in return for signing a promissory note. He must have refused because she went and complained to Muhammad. As `A^,isha recounted later: "By Allah, I had scarcely seen her in the doorway of my room before I detested her. I knew he would see her as I saw her." And so it was. Muhammad heard her plea and immediately offered to buy her from Thabit and marry her himself. She agreed at once.

"The Affair of the Necklace": On the return trip to Medina the men began fighting among themselves over the division of spoils and other matters, so Muhammad made a forced march to distract them. He had taken ‘A’isha (now 13) on the excursion. At one stooping place she lost her necklace and the army had to delay long enough to find it. A couple of nights later she discovered she had once again lost it. While she was away looking for it, the bearers loaded her howdah on the camel and the entourage departed. Returning to the camping spot, ‘A’isha realized her situation and lay down to sleep, believing they would return for her when they discovered her missing—but no one came. Eventually Safwan, a young native of a nomadic tribe who had converted to Islam and moved to Medina, passed by (no one knows why he was not with the rest of the force). He accompanied ‘A’isha back to Medina.

As soon as she returned to Medina, ‘A’isha became ill and stayed with her parents so that her mother could nurse her. Rumors about Safwan and ‘A’isha quickly spread through the community. Muhammad was concerned but no revelation came concerning his favorite wife’s innocence. The situation was so bad that he had to defend her in public from the pulpit (this statement also included a condemnation of slanderers)—although this led to members of two different threatening to kill each other, but he subdued them. Throughout this month or so ‘A’isha seems to have been so ill that she was unaware of the uproar. When she began to improve, Muhammad confronted her at her parent’s home. "A’isha professed her innocence, at which point a revelation occurred to Muhammad confirming the truth of her words (K. 24.11, 15-17). The "Light" sura in its entirety deals with the question of adultery and punishment for slander

627

Zainab bint Jahsh (8)—Over thirty years earlier Muhammad had set free and adopted his slave, one of the first adherents of Islam, who was known from that time as Zayd ibn Muhammad. In 623, the Prophet decided that in addition to Umm Avman Zayd should have a second wife, one nearer his own age, and he asked his cousin `Abd Allah, the son of Jahsh, for the hand of his beautiful sister Zaynab, a girl of great piety. At first Zaynab was unwilling; however, when she saw that it was the Prophet's desire that she should marry Zayd, she consented, and the marriage took place.

One day about two months after the "affair the necklace," Muhammad wanted to speak to Zayd--whom he had made his secretary--and went to his house. Muhammad knocked, but Zayd was not at home. Given the closeness of Muhammad to the household, Zaynab, partially undressed and still very lovely at thirty-five, called out for him to enter. Muhammad declined, but the wind lifted the curtain, evidently while she was hurriedly dressing. He fled in confusion, muttering, "Praise be to Allah the Most High! Praise be to Allah who changes men's hearts!" Not long after this Zayd came home, and his wife told him about it. He went to Muhammad and offered to part from Zaynab, but Muhammad counseled him: "Keep your wife for yourself." Nevertheless he ceased to have any intercourse with her and even lived apart from her. Still Muhammad refused to marry the wife of his adoptive son, for fear of the scandal it would cause. Adopting among the Arabs was regarded as being the same as natural fatherhood. Marrying Zaynab would be considered incestuous--the equivalent to marrying his daughter-in-law, almost his daughter. He clearly felt his desire for Zaynab wrong. But, as always in cases of difficulty, Allah came to the rescue. One day when Muhammad was with `A'isha he went into a trance. When it was over he smiled and exclaimed: "Who will go to Zaynab and tell her the good news, that Allah has married me to her?" And he recited the revelation which had just "descended on him" (K. 33:36-40) Admonished by Allah, but happy, Muhammad hastened to proceed with the marriage which was the occasion of a spectacular feast.

Other revelations in Sura 33 stressed the great difference between the Prophet and his followers. They were not to address him ever by his name as they addressed each other. The permission which God had given him, in virtue of his new marriage, to have more than four wives, was for him alone, and not for the rest of the community. Moreover, his wives were given the title of "the mothers of the faithful" (33.6) and their status was such that it would be an enormity in the eyes of God if, having been married to the Prophet, they should ever be given in marriage to another man. If the believers wished to ask a favor of one of them--for their intercession with the Prophet was often sought--they must do so from behind a curtain. They were also told not to bother him a t meal time or to linger in his presence in hope of conversation. Not only did this revelation provide protective measures for Muhammad, but it also introduced a new element into the liturgy, which made it possible for his people to give expression to their love and to benefit from his spiritual radiance without imposing unduly their presences upon him: They were told to "invoke blessings upon him and give him greetings of Peace." This is the reason that a Muslim today, immediately after writing or saying his name, will utter parenthetically "Peace be upon him!"

627

The Battle of the Trench—Early in 627 Abu Sufyan and the other Quraysh leaders met with Jewish leaders from Khabar to plan an assault on Medina. The Meccans set out from the south with approximately 7,000 men and the Khaybar group along with some nomadic tribes came down from the north with about 3,000. Much of this force was mounted on horseback. Muhammad was warned of the expedition, so he consulted with his Companions. Salman Farisi suggested the Persian strategy of digging a trench around Medina. After six days they barely completed the trench when the enemy appeared. The Meccans lay siege to Median and attempted sporadically to breach the trench, but to no avail. After three weeks, the food was gone and then the weather turned against them. A long hard rain fell and the temperature became unbearably cold in the besodden camp. Promised relief and reinforcements from the nomadic tribes (and possibly the Jewish enclave at Qurayzah didn’t materialize. Dispirited, the Quraysh force returned to Mecca.

627

The Jewish tribe of Qurayzah Put to the Sword by Muhammad--Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad immediately turned his attention to the Qurayzah, the Jewish tribe which inhabited the southeastern section of the oasis near Medina. Although pledged to support the Muslims, the Meccan alliance had nearly persuaded some members to attack Muhammad’s out-manned force from the unprotected south. Muhammad was concerned that the Qurayzah could not be trusted in the future and immediately sought to be rid of the problem. After a short siege, the Jews surrendered and opened the gates; however, Muhammad had all the men beheaded (app. 600-900), and the women and children were distributed among the Moslem warriors, together with the property, as spoils of war. Many of these captives were ransomed by the Bani Nadir at Khaybar.

627

Rayhanah the Jew (9)-- As part of his share of the loot from the Qurayzah, the Prophet chose Rayhanah, a woman of great beauty, and she remained the Prophet's slave until she died some five years later. At first he put her in the care of his aunt Salma. Initially Rayhanah was averse to entering Islam, but her kinsmen convinced her to do so. When enough time passed to make clear that she was not pregnant, Muhammad went to her and offered to set her free and to make her his wife.

628

The Treaty of Hudaybiyya: Following a dream in which he shaved his head and entered the Ka’b ah, Muhammad decided to make the pilgrimage to Mecca and set out with a large contingence. Once he reached the outskirts of the city, he stopped and made camp, much to the displeasures of many of his followers. The Quraysh hastily met with him and concluded a truce, which called for an end to the wars and recognized the Muslims’ rights to make the pilgrimage without incident—in future years. But this year, they were to peacefully return to Medina. This further displeased many of the Muslims. None the less, at Muhammad’s insistence, they returned home. On the return trip, Muhammad recited the revelation compiled as Sura 48¸which begins with "We have given you a glorious victory . . ." It confirms the Prophet’s vision which led to the expedition (48.27) and adds that all who fulfill their pledge are promised the Divine Good Pleasure and that the Spirit of Peace will descend upon them.

629

The Jews of Khaybar put to the sword. The Jews of Khaybar were not likely to attack Medina directly, but they had instigated the Quraysh and the Ghatafan nomads to do so. Muhammad set off with 1,600 men to conquer the exiled Bani Nadir and their kinsmenred men. The Jews were supremely confident: they resided in seven mountain fortresses, could muster 10,000 armored men, and had the promise of 4,000 reinforcements from the Ghatafan. Due to their confidence, each fortress decided to defend itself separately.

Muhammad began by attacking one of the smaller bastions. After six days of futility, a captured Jew told the Muslims of a weaker, less guarded fortress that could be taken by force. In its storerooms were siege machines which could be used against the other forts. Muhammad successfully took the fort and then began assaulting the others one by one. Capturing the four smaller, enslaving the inhabitants, and taking all the possessions, he then attacked the strongest of the three remaining. After a siege of 14 days, the leader brokered a deal with Muhammad. The upshot was that the Jews would forfeit all their wealth, but they agreed to remain in their homes to work the farms and orchards and pay yearly tribute of half their income. The other two strongholds surrendered under the same terms.

Safia (10); One of the prisoners from the first four forts was a beautiful 17-year-old girl named Safia (Safiyyah). Muhammad took her as part of his share from the expedition after killing her husband (of two months) for concealing his wealth. He convinced her to enter Islam, married her, and consummated the marriage that very night.

Ramlah (Umm Habibah) (11)—She was the daughter of Abu Sufyyan and Hind, but ten years before she had embraced Islam, married a young man, and with her husband emigrated to Ethiopia with the other Muslims fleeing persecution in Mecca. When her husband died a few months earlier, Muhammad sent word to a kinsman in the Ethiopian group, Jaffar, arrange a marriage between him and the widow, if she were willing. When he returned to Medina after their seven weeks' absence, Ja'far and Umm Habibah were already there. A feast was held to celebrate her marriage with the Prophet. She was now about thirty-five years old. The other wives, all except 'A'ishah, had known her in Mecca. She was, moreover sister-in-law of Zaynab, and Sawdah and Umm Salamah had been close companions in their early days together in Abyssinia.

At this time, Muhammad sent letters and messengers to the Kings of Persia, Yemen, and Ethiopia and the Emperor Heraclius, inviting them to accept Islam

629

The Lesser Pilgrimage--A year the signing of the treaty of Hudaybiyah, Muhammad set off for Mecca with 2,000 men in accordance with the promise of Quraysh that the Muslims would have safe access to the Holy Precinct in order perform the rite of the Lesser Pilgrimage. When they heard that the pilgrims had reached the edge of the sacred territory, the Quraysh vacated the whole of the hollow of Mecca and withdrew to the tops of the surrounding hills.

Muhammad and his companions complete the ritual of the lesser pilgrimage by circling the Ka’bah seven times and sacrificing animals. However, when they turned to enter the Mosque, the doors were locked; they were reminded doing so was not in their agreement and entry into the House was part of the Lesser Pilgrimage rite.

Maymunah (12)--During this visit to Mecca, Muhammad took the opportunity to marry a sister of the wife of his uncle ‘Abbas, a small banker who had not embraced Islam. Muhammad attempted to extend his stay by inviting the Meccans to a marriage feast, but the leaders insisted that he leave since the pilgrimage was completed.

629

Mary the Copt (13)-- Muqawqis, the Ethiopian king, sent an evasive response to Muhammad’s letter summoning him to Islam; but with his answer the ruler of Egypt sent a rich present of a thousand measures of gold, twenty robes of fine cloth, a mule, a she-ass and, as the crown of the gift, two Coptic Christian slave girls escorted by an elderly eunuch. The girls were sisters, Mariyah and Sirin, and both were beautiful, but Mariyah was exceptionally so, and the Prophet marveled at her beauty. He gave Sirin to Hassan ibn Thabit, and lodged Mariyah in the nearby house where Safiyyah had lived before her apartment adjoining the Mosque was built. There he would visit her both by day and by night; but his wives became so openly jealous that she was unhappy, and he then lodged her in Upper Medina. `A'ishah and the others were at first relieved, but they soon found that they had gained nothing. For the Prophet did not visit Mariyah any the less often, and the added distance meant that his absences were even longer than before.

They well knew that he was altogether within his rights--rights which had been recognized from the time of Abraham and before, and the Koran itself expressly allowed a master to take his handmaid as concubine on condition of her free consent. But the wives knew that the Prophet was exceedingly sensitive, and they saw to it this whole domestic life was now penetrated by their deliberately disguised reactions. In particular Hafsah gave vent to such feeling that Prophet was finally induced to swear that he would not see Mariyah again, and 'A'ishah was Hafsah's accomplice on this occasion.

The Revelation which now came is known as the Sura of Banning (66), because it opens with a reproof to the Prophet for having banned Mariyah in his life. Then, having formally absolved him from his oath, it first addresses Hafsah and `A'ishah, though not by name, and then all the wives. The Surah ends with examples from sacred history of two evil women and two women who were perfect. When he had recited this Revelation to his wives, the Prophet left to meditate upon it, and withdrew to a roofed verandah which was only room he had but for their apartments. News spread through Medina that he had divorced his wives. Eventually, 'Umar, one of his close friends and brother of Hafsah, gained permission to speak to Muhammad alone in his veranda. 'Umar, as he entered, said, "O Messenger of God, hast thou divorced thy wives?" The Prophet raised his eyes and said, "Nay, I have not." "Allahu Akbar!" exclaimed 'Umar, in a voice which could he heard in all the neighboring houses.

630

Truce broken by the Quraysh. Mecca taken by Muhammad - Mecca surrendered to a Muslim army without a fight; the entire population converted, and Muhammad established the Ka'bah as the religious center of Islam

November 629 as part of an ongoing vendetta, some of the Beduin allies of Quraysh attacked a tribe of allies, not far from Mecca. In all twenty people were slain. By Arab standards, Muhammad was bound to seek revenge. The Meccan leaders disagreed about how to respond, but Abu Sufyan had long been convinced that the best course was to reach an understanding with the Prophet. The unsuccessful siege of Medina had shown that it was no longer possible to destroy Muhammad. His victories over the Jewish colonies, his expeditions to the north, his treaties with the Beduin had all increased his power. Furthermore, his activities were seriously interfering with trade, which was the Meccans' exclusive livelihood, and they had been impressed by the discipline of the Muslim in battle and at Hudaybiyah.

The Quraysh sent Abu Sufyan, the man of compromise, to Medina to pacify Muhammad, relying on the assumed advantage of his daughter, Umm Habiba, having married the Prophet the previous year. Orthodox Muslim tradition records that he was given a very cool reception in Medina, even by his daughter.

In January 630, Muhammad set out with ten thousand men. Along the way he was joined by fresh contingents and by Meccans anxious to get on the right side of their probable conqueror. Among these was Muhammad's uncle, `Abbas the banker. The army encamped two days' march from Mecca and lit ten thousand fires. Panic grew in Mecca. Abu Sufyan induced the Qurayshites to send him to the Muslim camp, where he promptly placed himself under 'Abbas's protection. Abu Sufyan was formally converted to Islam and then returned to Mecca, where he proclaimed Muhammad's terms. These were perfectly clear. The city was in no danger if it welcomed the conqueror peacefully. In the face of his strength all resistance was vain. The life and property of all those who did not resist would he safe. All that they had to do was to lay down their arms and to shut themselves inside their houses or take refuge in the house of Abu Sufyan. Abu Sufyan's wife, the fanatical Hind, tried unsuccessfully to silence him by grabbing hold of his moustaches and crying out: 'Go on, kill this great goatskin, full of grease! A fine leader for the people, he is!' However he answered: `Woe unto you! Do not let her lead you astray. Something unprecedented has occurred!

On 11 January 630, the Muslims made their entry in four columns into the deserted streets of the city. Only a handful of extremists offered some resistance in one corner of the city. Like most sensible politicians, Muhammad proclaimed an amnesty for past offences. Hind, the wife of Ahi, Sufyan, who had behaved with such savage exultation at Uhud by eating the liver of the Prophet's uncle Hamzah, was spared. Her husband and family were too valuable as recruits.

631

The Year of Embassies- Bedouin tribes all over Arabia embraced Islam and recognized the authority of the Prophet Muhammad. Securely in control of Arabia, Muhammad also amended his policy toward Arabian Jews and permitted them free exercise of their religion and guaranteed the security of their property.

632

Muhammad's Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca--Muhammad set out for Mecca with an entourage of 30,000, including all his wives. At the mosque he recited the final revelation of the Koran: "This day the disbelievers despair . . . " (K. 5.3)

632, 8 June

Death of Muhammad—Not long after returning to Medina Muhammad began experiencing headaches which continued to increase in severity as the weeks passed. At this point, all the other wives agreed to forego their assigned day with Muhammad and he spent the last few days of his life in ‘A’isha’s apartment, lying on a couch with his head in her lap. The last words she heard him speak were Sura 4.69, after which he lost consciousness and died.